Sociedade e cultura (ca. 200 a. C. a 300 A. D.)

24 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

Transformações da sociedade indiana com o aparecimento do conceito de 'jati' (nascimento) por via do desenvolvimento económico, a especialização e a endogamia, nomeadamente a associada às 'srenis' (corporações). Fixação escrita dos grandes textos e distinção entre uma 'alta cultura' (ligada ao mundo religioso e cortesão) e uma 'baixa cultura' (pragmática e técnica e ligada aos grupos urbanos artesanais).

A época pós-Maurya (ca. 200 a. C.-300 A.D.)

21 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

As mudanças políticas registadas com a queda dos Maurya, reconfiguração do mapa político da Índia, novas invasões, integração do Sul da Índia na oikomene indiana (política, religiosa, social e culturalmente), contactos com a Ásia do sueste, bem como os benefícios do comércio internacional marítimo e terrestre.

Mauryan History

17 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

The expansion of  kingdom in the northeast laid the groundwork for the emergence of India’s first empire, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty (ca. 321–185 B.C.). 
By 303 B.C., Chandragupta Maurya (known to the Greeks as Sandracotta) had gained control of an immense area ranging from Bengal in the east to Afghanistan in the west and as far south as the Narmada River.

Chandragupta Maurya (322-297 B.C.):

Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the Nanda throne in 321 B.C. after dethroning the last Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) at the age of 25. He was the protege of the Brahmin Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, who was his guide and mentor both in acquiring the throne and in keeping it.

The acquisition of Magadha was the first step in establishing the new dynasty. Once the Ganges valley was under his control, Chandragupta moved to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by Alexander’s departure. The areas of the North-West fell to him rapidly. 
Moving back to Central India he occupied the region north of the Narmada River. But 305 B.C. saw him back in the north-west involved in a campaign against Seleucus Nikator (Alexander’s general who gained control of most Asiatic provinces of the Macedonian empire) which Chandragupta finally won in 303 B.C. Both signed a treaty and entered into a marriage alliance.

According to Jaina sources (Parisistaparvan), Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, and several other monks he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion (Sallekhana).

Kautilya and Arthashastra:

Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan Empire with his help. Arthashastra was written by him. It is the most important source for writing the history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably translated by him.

Bindusara (297-272 B.C.):

In 297 B.C., Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata, the destroyer of foes). Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending Mauryan control in the peninsula as far south as Mysore.

In foreign affairs, Bindusara maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic west established by his father.

Ashoka (269-232 B.C.):

Bindusara’s death in 273 B.C. led to a struggle for succession among his sons. It lasted for four years and in 269 B.C. Ashoka emerged successful. According to Asokavadana, Subhadrangi was the mother of Ashoka and it describes her as the daughter of a Brahman of Champa.

According to legend, Ashoka as a young prince was given charge of the Viceroyship of Ujjain. Buddhist texts inform us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara and Ashoka was sent to quell it.

The most important event of Ashoka’s reign seems to have been his conversion to Buddhism after his victorious war with Kalinga in 260 B.C. Kaling controlled the routes to South India both by land and sea, and it was therefore necessary that it should become a part of the Mauryan Empire. 
Ashoka mentions various of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with whom he exchanged missions, diplomatic and otherwise in his 13th Major Rock Edict. These have been identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria, (Amtiyoga)the grandson of Seleucus Nikator; Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt (Tulamaya); Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (Antekina); Magas of Cyrene (Maka) and Alexander of Epirus (Alikyashudala). 
Decline of Mauryan Dynasty: 
Actually, there are Some of the very obvious and other controversial causes for the decline of the Mauryan Empire are discussed, but it is true that Mauryan’s emperor ruled over the very big territory about 137 years, that is one of the longest period of Indian history, by rule any dynasty.

India from 7th Century B.C. to 4th Century B.C.

14 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

India has a varied culture and traditions, many of them have been influenced by the foreign culture. India being a prosperous and rich country with great civilization, it attracted the empires from long and many civilizations like Persian and Macedonian have invaded India for riches and few settled back while others left country with gold and diamonds. In all the great invasions of Ancient India Persian and Greek are the major ones.

• In the first half of sixth century BC, there were a number of small tribal states in North West India. There was no sovereign power to unite these warring tribes. 
• The Achaemenid rulers of Persia or Iran took advantage of the political disunity of this region. Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemeniddynasty, and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh. 
• The Persian rule in north western India lasted for nearly two centuries.
• The naval expedition of Skylax probably encouraged trade and commerce between Persia and India. 
• The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced in some measure by that of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia. 
• The cultural effects of the contacts with the Persians were also significant. The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing. It is called kharoshthi. It was derived from the Aramaic script, which was written from right to left. 
• Many of Asoka’s inscriptions found in north western India are witten in kharoshthi.
• The Mauryan art and architecture were also greatly influenced by the Persian art. 
•  
  During the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for supremacy over West Asia. 
• The Achaemenid Empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then marched towards India.
• According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Alexander was greatly attracted towards India because of her fabulous wealth. On the eve of Alexander’s invasion, north western India was divided into a number of small principalities. 
• Lack of unity among them helped the Greeks to conquer these principalities one after another. However, Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when they heard about the vast army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha. 
• Alexander had to return. He died at Babylon at the young age of 32 on his way back to Macedon. He hardly had any time to re-organize his conquests.
• The eastern part of his empire was given to Seleucus Nikator, who declared himself a king after the death of his master, Alexander though the contact between the Macedonians and ancient Indians was for a brief period, its impact was fairly wide in range. 
• Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the first time, in close contact with India, as routes, by sea and by land, were opened between India and the West. A close commercial relation was also established. 
• The traders and craftsmen used to follow these routes. Alexander asked his friend Nearchus to explore the sea coast from the mouth of the Indus to the Euphrates in search of harbours. 
• The Greek writers have left many valuable geographical accounts of this region for us. 
• The influence of Greek art is found in the development of Indian sculpture as well. The combination of the Greek and the Indian style formed the Gandhara School of art. 
• Indians also learnt the art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed gold and silver coins from the Greeks. The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well. 

JAINISM & BUDDHISM

10 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

Jainism-  
 
Teaching a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined nonviolence (ahimsa, literally “noninjury”) to all living creatures. Jains believe that their tradition does not have a historical founder. The first Jain figure for whom there is reasonable historical evidence is Parshvanatha (or Parshva), a renunciant teacher who may have lived in the 7th century bce and founded a community based upon the abandonment of worldly concerns. Jain tradition regards him as the 23rd Tirthankara (literally, “Ford Maker”; i.e., one who leads the way across the stream of rebirths to salvation) of the current age (kalpa). The 24th and last Tirthankara of that age was Vardhamana, who is known by the epithet Mahavira (“Great Hero”) and is believed to have been the last teacher of “right” knowledge, faith, and practice.

The name Jainism derives from the Sanskrit verb ji, “to conquer.” It refers to the ascetic battle that, it is believed, Jain renunciants (monks and nuns) must fight against the passions and bodily senses to gain enlightenment, or omniscience and purity of soul. The most illustrious of those few individuals who have achieved enlightenment are called Jina (literally, “Conqueror”), and the tradition’s monastic and lay adherents are called Jain (“Follower of the Conquerors”), or Jaina. This term came to replace a more ancient designation, Nirgrantha (“Bondless”), originally applied to renunciants only. 
Right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct are the three most essentials for attaining liberation in Jainism. In order to acquire these, one must observe the five great vows:

Non-violence -                                                                                                           Ahimsa

Truth -                                                                                                                            Satya

Non-stealing -                                                                                         Achaurya or Asteya

Celibacy/Chastity -                                                                                          Brahmacharya

Non-attachment/Non-possession – Aparigraha 

Buddhism-  
Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as “The Buddha,” lived during the 5th century B.C. Gautama was born into a wealthy family as a prince.

Although he had an easy life, Gautama was moved by suffering in the world. He decided to give up his lavish lifestyle and endure poverty.

When this didn’t fulfill him, he promoted the idea of the “Middle Way,” which means existing between two extremes. Thus, he sought a life without social indulgences but also without deprivation.

After six years of searching, Buddhists believe Gautama found enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. He spent the rest of his life teaching others about how to achieve this spiritual state.The Four Noble Truths, which Buddha taught, are:

 
The truth of suffering (dukkha)

The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)

The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)

The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

Collectively, these principles explain why humans hurt and how to overcome suffering.

In brief, the eight elements of the path are:  
 
(1) correct view- an accurate understanding of the nature of things, specifically the Four Noble Truths.  
 
(2) correct intention- avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent.  
 
(3) correct speech- refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and senseless speech. 
 
(4) correct action- refraining from physical misdeeds such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. 
(5) correct livelihood, avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, weapons, animals for slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons,  
 
(6) correct effort- abandoning negative states of mind that have already arisen, preventing negative states that have yet to arise, and sustaining positive states that have already arisen.  
 
(7) correct mindfulness awareness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena (the constituents of the existing world). 
 
(8) correct concentration- single-mindedness.