Sumários

India in Sixth century BC & the crisis of Bramanical Thoughts

7 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

The C 600 BC saw the religious and economic reform movement in the Gangetic basin. Numerous religious sects arose in this area in Sixth Century BC. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects. Many of these sects were based on regional customs and rituals practiced by different people.

These changes were due to the steady growth of social discrimination and economic transformation. The causes which gave rise to religious reform movement and economic transformation were manifold as.

In the brahmanical society the vaishyas ranked third, the first two being brahmanas and kshatriyas. Naturally they looked for some religion which would improve their position. he vaishyas extended generous reform movement and religion of Mahavira and Buddha. The merchants, called the sethis made handsome gift to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. There are several reasons for it. First, Jainism and Buddhism in the initial stage did not attach any importance to the existing Varna system. 
 
The new form of property created social inequalities, and caused misery and sufferings to the masses of the people. So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. They were not allowed to touch gold and silver. They were to accept only as much from their patrons as was sufficient to keep body and soul together.

They, therefore, rebelled against the material advantages stemming from the new life in the Gangetic basin. In other words, we find the same kind of reaction against the changes in material life in north eastern India in the sixth century BC, as we notice against the changes introduced by the industrial revolution in modern times. The advent of the Industrial Revolution made many people thinks of return to the pre-machine age life, similarly people in the past wanted return to the pre-iron age life.

It was in the sixth century B.C. that there lived in India the founders of two great religions of mankind. They were Mahavira Jina and Gautama Buddha, the founders of Jainism and Buddhism. Enough of literature came to be written about Jina and Buddha and about their religions. Though the Jaina and the Buddhist literature were religious in character, yet they contained much information about political and social conditions of that time. History could be written from those literary sources. It was the rise of Jainism and Buddhism which made the sixth century B.C. great and glorious.

The Political Condition during 6th Century B.C.:

India, during the sixth century B.C., was divided into a number of Independent states and even north India had no single paramount power. Most of these states were monarchical but quite a large number of them had republican or oligarchic constitutions. The Buddhist and Jaina religious texts are more informative regarding them as compared to the Hindu religious texts.

The changed economic and social circumstances influenced contemporary religious thought. The formation of awakened groups of traders, industrialists and labour resulted in putting a challenge to the supremacy of the Brahmanas.

The formation of sub-castes also did the same. Several of these groups were rich as well which gave them an advantageous position in the society. It led to religious awakening in the society which resulted in formation of several religious sects.

There is no doubt that the rise of Jainism and Buddhism during this age was a result of the changed economic and social circumstances also. We also find that both of these religious sects got support from the neo-rich trading and industrial classes which were eager to get a better social status so far denied to them.

The same way, both Jainism and Buddhism drew large converts from new sub-castes who were interested in getting equal status for all castes thereby getting the facility of having better social status for themselves.

Thus, we find that the 6th century B.C. proved important not only because of certain useful political changes but also because of changes in economic, social and religious condition of the people which all affected not only their own times but also the times to come.

The Upanishads and the birth of Philosophy

3 Novembro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha 

The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. They are an amazing collection of writings from original oral transmissions, which have been aptly described by Shri Aurobindo as "the supreme work of the Indian mind". It is here that we find all the fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism — the concepts of 'karma' (action), 'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman' (Absolute Almighty).
They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization, yoga, and meditation. The Upanishads are summits of thought on mankind and the universe, designed to push human ideas to their very limit and beyond. They give us both spiritual vision and philosophical argument, and it is a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth.
The term 'Upanishad' literally means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close to", and implies listening closely to the mystic doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. It points to a period in time when groups of pupils sat near the teacher and learned from him the secret teachings in the quietude of forest 'ashrams' or hermitages. In another sense of the term, 'Upanishad' means 'Brahma-knowledge' by which ignorance is annihilated. Some other possible meanings of the compound word 'Upanishad' are "placing side by side" (equivalence or correlation), a "near approach" (to the Absolute Being), "secret wisdom" or even "sitting near the enlightened".
These texts provide the basic source for many important topics of Indian philosophy and all major philosophical themes are covered in their pages. In general they remain neutral among competing interpretations and they attempt to integrate most of the opposing views regarding philosophical and spiritual matters.
 Indian thinkers were not satisfied with their intellectual speculations. They discovered that the universe remained a mystery and the mystery only deepened with the advance of such knowledge, and one of the important components of that deepening mystery is the mystery of man himself. The Upanishads became aware of this truth, which modern science now emphasizes.
In the Upanishads, we get a glimpse into the workings of the minds of the great Indian thinkers who were unhampered by the tyranny of religious dogma, political authority, the pressure of public opinion, seeking truth with single-minded devotion, rare in the history of thought. As Max Muller has pointed out, "None of our philosophers, not accepting Heraclitus, Plato, Kant, or Hegel has ventured to erect such a spire, never frightened by storm or lightning."
Bertrand Russell rightly said: "Unless men increase in wisdom as much as in knowledge, an increase in knowledge will be an increase in sorrow." While the Greeks and the others specialized in the subject of man in society, India specialized in man in depth, man as the individual, as Swami Ranganathananda puts it. This was one ruling passion of the Indo-Aryans in the Upanishads. The great sages of the Upanishads were concerned with the man above and beyond his political or social dimensions. It was an inquiry, which challenged not only life but also death and resulted in the discovery of the immortal and the divine self of man.

A sociedade vêdica

31 Outubro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

As características das sociedades indo-europeias, a sua trifuncionalidade, e a forma como esta se desenvolve na Índia a partir de 1500 a. C. para configurar a sociedade da época vêdica. As teorias de Georges Dumézil e os seus detractores a este respeito. As categorias sociais indianas (casta de origem forânea e varna - cor-, de origem indiana), evolução do seu uso no Rigveda, para se ver como a sociedade indiana da época vêdica tinha muita mais miscigenação com a população dravídica que a literatura normativa (Dharmashastras) deixa entender.

The Vedas and the Vedic religion.

27 Outubro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

 The Vedas (/ˈveɪdəz/; Sanskrit: वेद veda, "knowledge") are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal, authorless".

Vedas are also called śruti ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times. In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas. According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the rishis, who were considered to be seers or "hearers" (Śruti means "what is heard") of the Veda, rather than "authors". In addition, the Vedas are said to be "apauraṣaya", a Sanskrit word meaning "uncreated by man" and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status.

The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like Indra, chanting of hymns and performance of sacrifices. The priests performed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (Kshatriyas) and wealthy commoners Vaishyas. People prayed for abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors. This mode of worship has been preserved even today in Hinduism, which involves recitations from the Vedas by a purohita (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general well-being. However, the primacy of Vedic deities has been seconded to the deities of Puranic literature.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INDUS & VEDIC CIVILIZATIONS

24 Outubro 2017, 16:00 • João Manuel de Almeida Teles e Cunha

 The history of ancient India is a glorious one; unfortunately, we have very little information  
on this rich culture. The history divided between civilizations mark their differences as well as the progress / digress of ancient society. 

          In spite of its seeming diversity there was a large measure of cultural unity and the goal of political union was never lost sight of. This unity in diversity is the keynote of the tangled history of India and forms the background against which the seemingly complex developments in various aspects of Indian civilization must be viewed’. Civilization can be studied based on the salient features of its periodicity, societal arrangement, its cultural representation, political aspirations, religious beliefs and its rise or decline. On these broad classifications, we can study two major civilizations of India – Indus and Vedic. These two civilizations have not only played a major role in the development of ancient India, but have also left a lineage that still continues to shape our present Indian culture.

         Indus & Vedic Civilization kms apart, were a part of one civilization older than Vedic. Since the region spanned India across the coastal western belt and along the Indus River, the civilization was called Indus Civilization. Indus civilization was at its peak around 2500 B.C.E. After the decline of the Indus Civilization, a new civilization grew which was dominated by the Aryans and came to be known as the Vedic Civilization. 

Indus & Vedic Civilization One major reason cited by scholars for the decline of Indus Civilization is the constant flooding of Indus and other rivers. The excavations carried out in various sites confirm that the Indus cities have been renovated many times. To avoid flooding, people would have shifted to higher areas. Apart from the theory of constant flooding, various scholars have postulated theories for the decline of Indus Civilization. 
MAJOR DIFFERENCES OF INDUS & VEDIC CIVILIZATIONS: Some of the major differences that can be pointed out between these two civilizations are: · Indus civilization was more ‘urban’ and was ‘business oriented’, whereas Vedic civilization was ‘rural’ and agriculture based. · Indus valley people used baked bricks for construction whereas that of Vedic people was made of bamboo and grass.· Indus valley people made equipment’s off stone, copper; however, they were unaware of iron. Vedic valley people were aware of iron and made various equipment’s with it.

           Indus valley people worshipped ‘mother goddess’, Shiva, lingam and figurines. The Vedic people yajna worshippers and created various gods. They opposed linga puja and statue worship. · Indus valley knew about tiger and elephants; whereas Vedic people were fond of horses. They did not know about tiger or elephants. · Indus people respected ‘oxen’ whereas Vedic people worshipped the ‘cow’. · Indus valley people had designed their own script, whereas Vedic people did not have any script and practiced oral tradition.